Autism and the Ct. School Shootings

    I very seldom, in fact so far as I can remember, never comment on current events using my Psychological Training or Cognitive Science as an element.   I try to keep that separate.

     However, I am becoming very disturbed at the facile way reporters and commentators are throwing around terms such as "Autism" and "Asperger's Syndrome" as related to causation in the situation.    Neither is or could be true.  It is possible that some sort of identity disorder could be involved, but this is not Dustin Hoffman or Jerry from Boston Legal. 

    End of story.  If you want to know more, let me know.   Otherwise, look elsewhere for the causes.

Review of an old article about Ellis - more relevant for statistics today

Lichtenberg, J. W., Johnson, D. D., & Arachtingi, B. M.  Physical illness and subscription to Ellis's irrational beliefs.       Journal of Counseling & Development, 71(2), 157-163.

 

Overview:

     There is a significant correlation between subscription to Ellis's irrational beliefs and physical illness.  As the abstract states, "...the older the participant, and more often for women, higher need for approval, higher need for competency and achievement, lower need to find perfect solutions to problems, and to a lesser extent, higher dependence on stronger persons were correlated with a greater number of organ systems affected by illness, a greater number of chronic illnesses, and to a lesser extent, a greater total frequency of illness."  (157)  However, it is not entirely clear which is the dependent and which the independent variable.  Many of these irrational beliefs are stressors, furthermore, and this study at least supports the contention that stress is a cause of illness.

 

PERSONAL RESPONSE

Overall Reaction to the Article:

     This is one of the most tightly written and thoughtful of all the research articles I had read in the area of the behavioral and social sciences in general.  It is not simply or clearly written, but it is very precise and, so far as I am able to tell, address all of the significant research design issues. 

     For example, one possible flaw would be the fact that the history of illness was self-reported, but studies cited indicate that such self-reports are 82% to 93% accurate.  (159)  While this "builds in" a degree of inaccuracy, we at least know how much. 

     Another problem frequently encountered in research articles is an undue stress on the significance of the correlation, either in claiming causation or implying it.  Even if these concerns are addressed, authors often leave undiscussed the direction of the correlation.   In this case, while reading the article (I find it informative generally to read the article and ignore the abstract as not enough researchers write useful abstracts), I kept wondering if these irrational beliefs could not be a product of illness rather than vice versa, especially in light of my reading of some of the tables.  The authors, however, conclude the discussion by stating that "...illness proved to be a better predictor of irrational beliefs than beliefs were for them."  (161) 

     Perhaps the only shortcomings of the study are the sample size and a suspicion that it may not be representative.  They were "selected from two midwestern communities."  The population within the sample was representative.  In other words, variables such as gender, age, income level, etc. were considered. (158)  The question is whether the restrictive location (midwestern, size of community not specified), and size (122) is sufficient to justify generalization to the population at large.  There are statistical techniques available to adjust for these factors, but no mention of them in the article.  The authors do state, however, that the results were "statistically significant" (157) so I assume they were applied.

  While the conclusions reached were very carefully stated, the data will be supportive of some of Ellis's claims.  In the distant future, it is difficult to predict, but the article does serve as a useful example of careful research.

Implications for the Field:

     Although few studies have been done exploring the relationship between irrational beliefs and illness, those that exist support a significant relationship.  This relationship makes this study and others important not only to counselors but to physicians in general and supports a holistic approach towards both physical and mental health.  The relationship between the two is strong enough not to be ignored. 

A Reasonable Analysis of Racism in Education

 

     As we contemplate the situation today, not much discussion of the fact that we have a “Black” President seems relevant.  His actions and behavior and activities would be more appropriate in a study of Capitalism and resultant alienation. 

 

     My concern here is not with why people can not get along with one another.  That, again, would require a discussion of the Capitalist World System and how power is maintained by perpetuating division between people on any basis other than class or income.  I believe that it is quite clear, however, that there is absolutely no “Hard-Wiring” involved in Racism or ethnic division or religious prejudice.  It is most certainly acquired as a result of experience and conditioning and that cognitive analysis yields little evolutionary basis for such attitudes.

    One final note: Please excuse the spacing in the notes.  Moving this from one format to anther simply caused extra to be entered at the point of "hard returns".

 

 

Racism in Education

©2011 by Charles Stanford

Introduction

     A brief look at the subject of genetics and a more detailed look at Carl Rowan's The coming race war in america:  A wake-up call (1996) introduces the major issues for this discussion of racism in America's schools.  It also forms the background for a brief discussion of African-Americans and International Relations.  A plethora of statistics and data exist to show the inequity of racism (Axelson, 1993) and enough information is available to show that multi-cultural approaches work and are of benefit to all cultures, including the dominant one (Nieto, 1992).  Afrocentrism is discussed to illustrate how a study of contributions of non-dominant culture members can inform the general curricula.  This paper is not intended as a summary or digest of such information nor is it an agenda.  Rather, it is intended as a philosophic reflection on the issue facilitated by a discussion of the literature.  Educators must become cognitively engaged on the subject before they consider their own, one hopes unique, approach to the issue.

Genetics

     A great deal of information was made available to the world through the O. J. Simpson trial, information that was available elsewhere but not quite as dramatically.  One point that was discussed during the DNA phase of the trial was genetics.  It was pointed out at one point that ninety-nine percent of our genetic code is identical to that of the other primates.  This leaves one percent to account for all of the differences between humans.  Most of that one percent is devoted to such factors as longevity, height, liver size, etc.  This leaves a very small percentage to account for all the other, easily observable, differences such as skin, hair, and eye color.  With lamentable human logic, most of our energy is spent in making decisions based on this minute information, and discussed inadequately and incompetently at that.  Rowan (1996) summarizes the nonsense well enough to make further discussion here superfluous, but it is worth pointing out that he neglects to mention that the first significant rebuttal to the genetic myth was published as long ago as 1906 and by an African American (DuBois, 1906).

Carl Rowan and the International Arena

     Carl Rowan's The coming race war in america:  A wake-up call (1996) has several uses, but it is particularly useful for citing and documenting those incidents one remembers from the news but has difficulty in locating.  It is also useful for a few interesting comments and approaches.  For example, when the inane, but inevitable, question of where the money is going to come from to implement programs that will help to bring about needed progress in education, Rowan replies "...with the money we're spending for new prisons -- or that Gingrich proposes to spend on stockades or orphanages." (295).

     It is also deficient in several ways.  First, it hardly lives up to its dramatic title because it does not delve deeply enough into the militias and their plans for a race war which seems to be the justification for the title.  Second, it does not describe in any detail how African-Americans today will fight back.

     Perhaps his neglect of DuBois, who is not mentioned in the book, can be explained by Rowan's previous ties to the U.S.I.A. (where he was Director), and his membership in the National Security Council -- hardly the credentials of a "leftist" or a "militant" as he has been called often enough.  As Pilgram (1989) points out, DuBois earned his doctorate from Harvard in 1896 and his dissertation became the first volume of the Harvard Historical Series.  He helped found the NAACP and published a series of intellectually pioneering studies, including The Philadelphia Negro: A Social Study in 1899, the first empirical sociological study conducted by any American.  As he became more aware of international relations and the United States' role in it, he became Chairman of the Peace information Center in 1950.  After attaining Having attained international prominence through his discussions of United States foreign policy, he was consequently indited on federal charges of being an "unregistered foreign agent."  He joined the American Communist party in 1961 and went to Ghana and died in 1963, one day before the march on Washington. 

     Rowan's association with the National Security Council could also explain his approach to Louis Farrakhan.  Rowan quotes Farrakhan as calling Judaism a "gutter religion" and Israel an "outlaw state."  (63)  On CSPAN2 and other broadcast outlets I have heard the first quote as: "Someone who uses religion to justify such acts has their mind in the gutter."   Farrakhan's main point seems to be that "... the black man will never be free until we address the problem of the relationship between blacks and Jews." (69)  On his second point, the international issue, Israel is, in fact, in violation of numerous United Nation's Security Council resolutions.  When Andrew Young, during the Carter Administration, talked with the Palestinians secretly in an attempt to resolve some peace issues, he was forced to resign as a result of the reaction of Jewish organizations in the United States.  The real point here is that Farrakhan does not fit the mainstream notion of what a "good" African-American should be like, but instead, as did DuBois, achieved international recognition, especially from those not likely to be embraced by the National Security Council and its alumni.  While a complete discussion of Farrakhan is beyond the scope of this paper, and while, despite the fact (or, perhaps, because of the fact) that his grandfather was "probably" Jewish, he may indeed be prejudiced against Jews, we can at least quote him correctly.  Part of the hatred between races is a result of ignorance and people can only reason from the facts laid before them.  No service is done to the people by distorting reality. 

A Modest Hypothesis

     Other African Americans seem to have run afoul of society when they began to discuss international affairs.  Martin Luthur King, of course, was the target of J. Edgar Hoover for some time before King made statements about the Viet Nam war, but it was only after these statements that he was assassinated.  Winning the Nobel Peace Prize hardly endeared him to bigots.  Mohammed Ali was tolerated, but derided, through his name change and religious conversion.  Opinion was fairly split on his refusal to be inducted into the service until he spoke out with typical directness: "I ain't got nothing 'gainst them Viet Cong."  He was then stripped of his title and boxing license and the only sports reporter to support him was Howard Cosell, a law school graduate.  Ali was eventually vindicated by the Supreme Court.  Stokely Charmichal eventually left the country as DuBois had earlier.  Paul Robeson is another example.  Carl Rowan, unlike Andrew Young, has always been careful to seem more "patriotic" than others and, while he regularly receives death threats, will most likely survive.  Hank Aaron received many death threats when it became clear that he would break Babe Ruth's lifetime home run record, but he never to mentioned anything about international affairs.

     One may hypothesize that African Americans are less likely than "White Americans" to judge foreign countries and leaders on the basis on color and, hence, are less likely to adopt an imperialist approach.  When they begin to invade foreign policy which is seem by the power structure as its own province, they are highly suspect and prone to retaliation.  However, further  development of this issue is beyond the scope of this paper.

Racism

     Molnar (1989) warned of the seriousness of racism and Rowan (1996) has amplified the warning.  There can be no doubt that it exists and is pervasive even in higher education (Djangi, 1993) where, presumably, the brightest intellects of our species collect. 

     In addition, racism exists in many guises and forms.  A review of the literature shows, if it needed documentation, that racism is directed at Arabs (Shabbas, 1991), Hispanics (Ponciana, 1989), Native-Americans (Harvey, 1993), and every other minority or ethnic group. 

Afro-Centrism

     Just as a discussion of Minister Farrakhan is beyond the scope of this paper, so is a discussion of the many "races" that face discrimination in society and in our schools.  Each cultural group comes to the school with a somewhat different experience and Weltanschauung just as each individual comes with a different experience than those within a cultural group.  Even the second child comes into an entirely different world than the first child.  For this reason, a brief discussion of what is possible in relation to African Americans is offered with the understanding that the general principles apply to all races.  In other words, the contributions and treatment of all people of color in the United States have been distorted or ignored in our curricula.

     African American studies as an academic discipline in often misunderstood.  Certainly, it is not a subject advisable as a major for an upwardly mobile undergraduate -- most career development specialists tend to emphasize technical specialties for that.  However, the research done under such programs and the knowledge that can be applied is certainly valuable.  Boyd (1992) discusses this issue adequately.

     Harris (1992) and Wieder (1992) and others emphasize that an understanding of the contributions to society by African Americans can help in combating racism and Assante (1991) points out that such studies are of value to both black and white youth.  Powell (1991) provides an excellent summary of the debate.  Essentially, those opposed argue that much of the work is irrelevant and inaccurate, deprives the students from learning what is important about the "real" roots of our society, and tends to take on a militant aura.  Those in favor argue that the current curricula ignores the significant contributions of Blacks to our culture, gives young African Americans a negative self-image, and ignores the contributions and experiences of Blacks prior to the days of slavery. 

     We can at least examine one example of what has come from such studies before we take one side or the other.  Over twenty years ago, Almonse A. Thompson, Jr. (1975) wrote his "Pre-Columbia Black Presence in the Western Hemisphere."  Columbus himself noted the presence of blacks when he landed, he got the idea that the world was not flat from blacks, and there is evidence that "Proto-Negroids" sailed from Africa and settled in Mexico a short time after Christ was born.  He also maintains that additional translations from the Arabic will further document these facts.  The article is well-documented and convincing and has only one sour note -- he reasons that since there was no land bridge 20,000 years ago in Siberia, the Native Americans could not have possibly arrived on this continent first. 

     It is enough, however, to know the facts about the Black exploration and contribution and this is the sort of information that needs further dispersal, especially in the elementary schools both as a necessary counter to the Columbus jingoism that still prevails, but more importantly as an indication to young blacks that their race is not a hindrance to pride in accomplishment.  Rowan (1996) recalls an incident at KcKinley High School in 1987 when the honor roll was called and many black students on that role "refused to stand when their names were called." (267)  It seems that they did not want to be considered traitors to their race and did not wish to be seen as acting like "Whitey." (268).  If more attention had been given to pre-columbian Black history (let alone to DuBois), perhaps achievement and intellectual capacity would not have been perceived as a betrayal of their race, a point Farrahkan repeatedly makes.

Multiculturalism

     Newman (1995) presents a convincing case that, over the past twenty years, the schools have had some success in reducing racism, both in their own structure and in the minds of the students.  On the other hand, Levy (1995) indicates that students in a multi-cultural class tended not to believe that they harbored any racist notions.  Her solution is to make available the literature of these groups.  If counselors, or would-be counselors, are unable to perceive these thoughts in themselves, one can reasonably argue that the population at large is in need of a great deal of education on this subject.  Houser (1996) points to the need for thinking of the entire issue as "self-development" and perhaps this is a more important concept than is often realized.  Nieto (1992) convincingly argues that a multi-cultural education is valuable to students of all cultures and Banks (1992) extended this concept to gender. 

     In the discussion of Afrocentrism (above), it became clear that role models were essential to members of minority groups, at the very least to dispel their own acceptance of racist myths.  Of course, the concept needs to be extended to all cultures.  Few people today, for example, realize that the works of ancient Greece and Rome come to us through Arab scholars.  However, pointing that out in the current political climate is about as iconoclastic as stating that Beethoven's father was Black.  Similar statements of fact could be made about any cultural group with the same reception. 

     A hostile attitude towards such statements or facts exists because we live in an economic system that emphasizes competition, that posits that success is built on the suppression and failure of others.  Multi-culturalism, on the other hand, stresses cooperation, the direct opposite.  In addition, we are conditioned to accept this Social Darwinist Weltanschauung to the extent that we look for any advantage in our relations with others.  Even the rhetoric we hear from politicians about "equality" is based upon the realization that preaching "inequality" sounds bad to the voting public and much of what we hear in "liberal" (whatever that means these days) circles seems more directed towards appearance than reality.  This competitive necessity as we see it is so deeply ingrained that members of all "races" tend to stereotype members of other races.   

     A multi-cultural approach, especially in the earliest grades, would help to reduce such friction.  Furthermore, this need not be seen as "political correctness" -- simply being as "correct"  about the facts should suffice. 

Conclusion

     It is absurd to look to genetics as a justification for racism.  Carl Rowan's The coming race war in america:  A wake-up call (1996) is an excellent introduction to the subject of racism in general and racism in America's schools in particular.  It also unintentionally provides a background for a brief discussion of African-Americans and International Relations.  Racism is clearly detrimental to people of all "races," and multi-cultural approaches are of benefit to all cultures, including the dominant one.  Afrocentrism illustrates how a study of contributions of non-dominant culture members can inform the general curricula.

 

 

REFERENCES

 

 

 

Assante, M. K.  (1991).  The afrocentric idea in education.       Journal of Negro Education, 60(2), 170-80.

 

Axelson, J.  (1993).  Counseling and development in a multicultural society.  Pacific Grove:  Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.      [While this text does not focus very well on the counseling   aspect, it does give valuable information about a number of      ethnic or cultural groups -- all in one place.]

 

Banks, J.  African-American scholarship and the evolution of      multicultural education.  Journal of Negro Education, 61(3),    273-86.

 

Boyd, A.  (1993).  Afrocentrism: Hype or history?  Library Journal, 117(18), 46-49.

 

DuBois, W.  (1906).  The health and physique of the negro american.      Atlanta: Atlanta University Press.

 

DHangi, A.  (1993). Racism in higher education: Its presence in the    classroom and lives of psychology students.  ERIC Microfiche.

 

Harris, M. D.  (1992)  Africentrism and curriculum: Concepts,      issues, and prospects.  Journal of Negro Education, 61 (3),      301-16.

 

Harvey, K.  (1991).  Native americans: The next 500 years.  Social    Studies and the Young Learner, 5(3), 1-4.

 

Houser, N.  Multicultural education for the dominant culture:      Toward the development of a multi-cultural sense of self.       Urban Education, 31(2), 125-48.

 

Levy, M.  Reflections on multi-culturalism and the tower of      psychobabble.  ALAN Review, 22(3), 11-15.

 

Molnar, A.  Racism in american:  A continuing dilemma.  Educational    Leadership, 47(2), 71-72.

 

Newman, G. (1995).  Racism: Divided by color, multicultural issues.  Springfield, N.J.: Enslow Publishers, Inc.

 

Nieto, S.  (1992).  Affirming diversity: The sociopolitical context   of multi-cultural education.  White Plains:  Longman.

 

Pilgram, D.  (1989).  A tribute to W. E. B. DuBois. in D. Pilgram, ed., On being black: An in-group analysis (second edition).      Bristol, Indiana:  Wyndam Hall.

 

Ponciano, J.  (1989).  Racism and the hispanic high school dropout.       ERIC Microfiche ED329604.

 

Powell, F.  (1991).  Acrican centered education: What is it and why   do we need it?  ERIC Misrofiche ED344832.

 

Rowan, C.  The coming race war in america:  A wake-up call.       Boston:  Little, Brown and Company.  [See esp. Chapter 5,      "I.Q. and Race, 142-158.]

 

Shabbas, A.  (1991). The Arabs: Activities for the elementary      school level.  The things that make for peace: Emporwering    children to value themselves and others.  Berkley: AWARI--Arab     World and Islamic Resources and School Services.

 

Thompson, A. A.  (1975)  Pre-columbia black presence in the western   hemisphere. Negro History Bulletin, 38(7), 452-56.

 

Wieder, A. (1992)  Afrocentrisms: Capitalist, democratic, and      liberationist protraits.  Educational Foundations, 6(2), 33-  42.

 

 

 

Further Reflections on Behavioralism

    Since the last article on Behavioralism, we have received a number of comments.  I thought I'd try to clarify as few points or add some to the discussion:

     Behavior therapy has so many dimensions (and has gone through at least three phases) that it is difficult to assess as a single approach.  I tend to side with Bandura in his cognitive emphasis and note that Ellis and Beck are given a chapter of their own.  This would tend to indicate that there is a need to separate the approaches, yet Corey is not helpful to me in this attempt.  It would seem that REBT is a subdivision of behavior therapy, yet the term "behavior therapy" produces quite a different affective response in me than does REBT.  One way to approach this is that behavior can be changed through alterations in cognition, while behaviorists tend to believe that cognition can be changed through changes in behavior.  Since cognition is a behavior, the two approaches belong together although the emphasis is different.

     One generally thinks of Skinner when behaviorism is mentioned, yet Corey devotes very little space to him even though he is as important as a founder of the approach as Freud is to psychoanalysis.  Perhaps this is because adherents of the school wish to distance themselves from him.  I know that the general public, to the extent that it is familiar with Skinner (operant), associates him with conditioning in a Pavlovian sense (classical).  While such a perception is incorrect, it is nonetheless damaging as people do not like to consider themselves merely a set of conditioned responses. 

     The unique contribution is the focus on behavior as opposed to feelings.  Perhaps this is why the approach is popular with those in authority from governmental agencies to HMOs -- the concern is not with how the individual feels but with how he or she behaves.  All that is necessary is to change troubling or inconvenent behavior. 

     The problem is that this may get to the symptoms, but not the disease.  It does not get to the root of the problem.  It becomes tempting to treat the "presenting" problem rather than the one underlying it.  Sometimes this may be the only approach.  To use a personal example, I once went to a doctor in Illinois who had graduated from the University of Vienna (as I remember) for a severe cold.  He said "I can treat the symptoms but not the disease -- I want you to know that."  I told him that I understood the nature of viruses and that, in this particular case, I did not mind the virus -- just the symptoms.  Then he gave me several prescriptions and we had a general discussion on the epidemiology of the cold virus.  The symptoms vanished soon and, I assume, the virus ran its course.  The point is that in some cases, it may be quite sufficient to treat the symptoms and leave it go at that. 

     In addition, with many behavior problems such as alcoholism, if the symptom of over-consumption is treated, the client's environment will change.  That is to say, people may begin to treat him or her differently, he or she may be able to more effectively deal with reality and thus remove some of the conditions that led to the over-consumption in the first place. 

3.d.:  Concepts and techniques I want to incorporate.

     The basic idea that we tend to indulge in behavior that is rewarded or which removes us from situations we find unpleasant is sound.  I would add, however, that it is our perception of what is rewarding or pleasant that is key here.  Some people may find emotionally laden and vitriolic confrontations unpleasant (I know I do).  Yet others seem to thrive on them and I know of several who seem to feel that such confrontations give them a sense of identity and achievement. 

     The techniques are very powerful and helpful.  Corey describes a relaxation exercise in great detail in the manual and also talks about desensitization.  I can see myself using any and all of the techniques where appropriate.

3.e.: Personal application.

     As I mentioned in other CAPS papers, I tend to modify my own behavior by first changing my cognition concerning that behavior.  I can also be fairly stubborn -- that is to say, when I know some sort of attempt is being made to condition me, I become very resistant.  To some extent, this supports the contentions of the behaviorists.  In other words, attempts to condition me, when I am aware of them, tend to reinforce the original behavior by giving it a kind of validation. 

3.f.: Questions to pursue further.

     I have not even mentioned Lazarus so far.  This is because I would like to conduct a more systematic study of his "multi-modal" approach.  I have seen the questionnaire which does seem a bit overwhelming in its scope.  How willing are client's to fill out such an extensive document?  Are all the questions needed?  Could a more Rogerian styled fact-finding approach be used?  What is the difference between the BASIC-ID approach and a "wholistic" approach?   Do people tend to advertise themselves "behaviorists" because it is popular with agencies and HMOs?  Is this one of the reasons for the elusive nature of it now as opposed to strict operant conditioning?  Am I, in fact, a behaviorist even though I do not realize it?  Since cognition is a behavior and I think that our perceptions of things determine our feelings toward events and behavior in response to them, I certainly could so categorize myself even though I see grave abuses possible.  A major contribution is ethical neutrality -- in other words, the client decides on what behavior needs to be changed.  But suppose the government becomes the client and the individual is merely a commodity to be "fixed."  Where would a behaviorist stand?  If the behaviorist complies with the government's directive because it is financially rewarding, is not the therapist as well a victim of behavioral conditioning (positive reinforcement)? 

Sexism in Context

©2006 by Charles Stanford, Ph.D.,C.C.B.T.

 

 If you are familiar with the MMPI, you are aware of the various numbers, one of which is supposed to indicate sexual identity.  Curiously, most addicts and alchoholics scored extremely well in such areas.  In other words, well in excess of what were considered normal proclivities for the sexes.  I often wondered if they were so attuned to that one area that they scored in such a way.

  

Sexism in Context

 

Introduction

     Sexism is a deeply-rooted part of our psyche and even the most "Polictically Correct" of us are not immune to its influence.  Both males and females are stereotyped in our society, our media, our language, and in our schools.  Abundant material is available to document the negative influence it has, especially on females, and sufficient materials are already available to address this situation.  Integral to all such solutions is the awareness that language is a primary force in consciousness raising. 

The Appendixes

     The appendixes are provided to illustrate how sexism works and Appendix A is meant to be consulted throughout.  The text in Appendix A is interesting because it illuminates the discussion of sexism in schools and gives us something concrete to discuss.  Granted it is one more anecdote of many that permeate discussions of this subject and anecdotal evidence is suspect in scientific circles; at the same time, a careful deconstruction of this example enables us to see more clearly the many issues involved.  It is meant to be read before the following discussion.  Appendix B is presented to help illustrate how sexism is not solely a feminist issue, but actually a humanistic one.

Sexism and Stereotypes

     When first confronted with this anecdote, the first question that comes to mind is "who is the speaker?"  Most readers, male or female, would assume that it is the mother, a female, but there is no conclusive evidence within the text in the appendix to establish the gender of the speaker.  Earlier in the passage the following sentence gives a deceptive clue: "Mary and I, like most parents, were anxious for her first year of school to go well." (43)  This would seem to indicate that the speaker is male as Mary is a female name and parents generally consist of husbands (male) and wives (female).  Yet these parents could be adoptive parents and both female or male, perhaps with one playing the "father" and the other the "mother" role.  These parents could also be transgendered. 

     The assumptions made by the readers who assume the speaker is female are numerous and based either upon the premise that the primary care giver is usually female or the notion that most agitation for nonsexist language and behavior emanates from females.  These may well be correct assumptions but, in this case, lead to an unprovable conclusion.  The salient point here is that all observers come to the text with preconceived notions in reference to phenomena in general and sexism in particular.  Any attempt to deal with the issue must be subject to the past experience of the reader and thus misunderstood to the extent that the consciousness of the reader and writer diverge. 

     Even our basic assumption that prejudice is a unilateral conceptual construct with a variety of contributing or causal factors is suspect.  (Young-Bruehi, 1996).  In fact, there may be as many different prejudices as there are people, multiplied by the number of specific prejudices each person holds.  This has serious implications in the areas of mental health (Willie, 1995) and Education (McCarthy (1993). 

     With such an amorphous foundation, discourse on the subject must deal overwhelmingly with perceptions, perceptions of the speaker, the listener, and society at large which, in turn, is comprised of a multitude of individuals each with their own perceptions.  Still, a number of issues must transcend such perceptual differences because communication is impossible if there is no common human experience.

 

The Female Stereotype

     Stereotyping according to sex or gender begins at birth, with both mothers and fathers using the same general frame of reference  (females described as "more delicate," for example) to the same extent.  (Karraker, 1995)  This is primarily a social issue and there is no reason to assume it is a recent phenomena (somewhere, Aristotle describes woman as being "one rung" below man on the evolutionary ladder). 

     The stereotype is made more pervasive and even reified in its uniformity by mass media, the most pervasive of which today is television.  (Theilheimer, 1995).  Indeed, Murphy Brown, now Schmidt of Boston Legal, is allowed to be a strong, sympathetic woman only so long as she falls prey to female weaknesses from time to time.  MTV and BET serve a steady diet of dominant males performing masculine feats while barely clad females admire and gyrate for them. 

     Males are not free from this stereotyping either as most of the ones I've seen in commercials are depicted as "hunkish" dolts who are unable to ascertain which is the best laundry detergent to use and are only rescued by a competent female with whom he immediately falls in love.  Our reactions to the anecdote concerning Allison are germane here:  the reason most identify the speaker as female is the stereotype that women are more caring, they are the ones who pick up the child and take her to school, ask her about school, become involved in feminist issues, etc.

Sexism in Our Schools

     The literature in the field of gender equality in education is extensive and even seems to have an official canon of "useful" materials of over 600 items, carefully annotated (Stitt, 1994).  All of the materials agree that gender inequality is bad and that females are the ones that need the most protection and encouragement.  There seems to be unanimity of opinion on the basic subject as an extensive review of literature on this

subject has yielded no significant dissent.  Such dissent is generally found in the popular press or on the internet. 

     In addition, the articles and books cited in this paper seem to hold the same view.  Stein argues that in K-12 schools First Amendment rights are not extended to female students to the same extent as they are to males (1995) and Ramey indicates that the sexism continues up the administrative ladder to positions of power and responsibility in higher education (1995).  Perhaps the definitive work in establishing the parameters of discussion is Sadker's Failing at fairness:  How America's schools cheat girls. (1994) The major points, developed through 340 pages, are that girls actually start out ahead of boys and, as a result of systematic sexism, graduate far behind them. 

     One issue that I have not been able to find addressed is the status of boys in the K-12 system in relation to the actors within the structure itself, and this is still true in the 21^st century.  For example, almost all authority figures a young male must deal with in his formative years are female.  Granted, as one moves up the administrative ladder to Principal and above there is a much higher concentration of males, but the student spends far more time under the power and authority of either a female teacher or his mother than he does subject to the direct control of males.  If the classroom atmosphere is such that it oppresses female students, the direct oppressors are primarily female.  In Allison's case, for example, who was overseeing the game of dog?  In this kindergarten situation, what might have happened if the overseer had imposed a reversal of roles, having the boys chase the stick instead of the girls?  Would that be viewed as making the girls more passive and less active?  The fact that the immediate purveyors of this sexist orientation are female simply yields the following general conclusion:  gender is no guarantee of awareness, nor is awareness a guarantee of empowerment. 

 

Sexism and Males

     It seems fairly well-established that sexism has the primary adverse effect on females, but it is essential that we realize that it also has an adverse effect on males.  The example of Bill (Appendix B) is a case in point.  Once again, we see the complicity of the teachers in perpetuating and reinforcing the sexual stereotypes.  The effects on Bill seem to have been extremely deleterious.  Even more oppressive is the pressure on young boys to act in male roles, which include not crying, never to hit a girl (even if attacked by one of them), etc.  In the game of "dog," Allison's case, she at least enjoyed the running and preferred that role.  What would have happened to her if she wanted to throw the stick or to Bill if he wanted to chase the stick?  How many of the boys involved would have rather been chasing the stick instead of throwing it?  How many of the girls would have rather been throwing the stick? 

The Game of Dog

The game of "dog" thus serves as a handy metaphor for all socially imposed roles.  Other than the homocentric notion that humans are somehow superior to canines, there is no obvious social history to encumber it.  In addition, every inflected language I've researched considers "dog" a masculine noun so even the argument concerning sexist language is moot in this case.  What remains is a non-sexist game that has somehow taken on gender role significance by the fact that each gender has an artificially prescribed role.  That is to say, the genders are separated by the roles imposed upon them.  It reminds one of the great political wars described by Jonathan Swift in Gullivers Travels where the central contention between warring factions was which end of a hard-boiled egg should be cracked before peeling.

    What would happen if it were decided that the girls should chew gum on the left side of the mouth and boys on the right?  We would have debates over the connotations of left (awkward, evil, etc.) and right (correct, true, etc.).  The term in French for left is gauche which means clumsy.  Would we thus be saying girls are clumsy?  It seems to be the roles themselves, the fact that different roles are allotted to different genders, which are at the core of the problem.

Approaches to the Problem

     Obviously there is a need for leadership in the schools in dealing with sexism.  The facts that the overwhelming majority of teachers are female and sexism persists are sufficient indication that the gender of authority figures is no remedy.  Although there is a need for all individuals involved to be willing to change attitudes (Erickson, 1995), it is the culture within the educational system that needs the most direct and immediate attention (Stein, 1993) if these changes are to be possible.  We remember that in Bill's case, even the teachers joined in the stereotyping.  In fact, there is strong evidence that most of the impetus towards sex discrimination come from the teachers themselves (Lee, 1994).  It is the system itself that perpetuates these roles (Phinney, 1994) and affects even the most gifted (Kitano, 1995).

     The first step is to make it unambiguously clear that sexism will not be tolerated, but an even better approach would be some sort of school-wide program rewarding those who take leadership roles in combating sexism or promoting humanism.  What sexism is and how to recognize it should be made clear.  There are many materials available on this subject and Hilke provides a model that is simple and straightforward enough to be implemented just about anywhere (1994).  McCormick (1994) even offers an entire curriculum.  What is most important, however, is the daily attention to the subject in a way that is in harmony with the generally perceived and traditional role of the schools as an institution of learning.

     Language is one force that is integral to our daily lives.  While I do not ascribe to the notion that language is culture, it certainly reflects and is a part of a culture.  In other words, every language is perfectly adequate to express its culture and is modified by its culture and, in turn, reflects modifications in that culture.  In addition, one may call attention to another's use of sexist language in a non-threatening manner and it is certainly within the parameters of public education for a principal to call attention to improper use of language. 

     There are other policies that can be implemented without a great deal of community or faculty resentment once the basic policy of humanism is established as few would openly admit that they do not treat each person as a separate individual.  Once the teachers and community accept this basic premise, a number of other guidelines can be established.  Rudduck (1994) provides an excellent list which is adaptable to any coeducational setting which includes such things a paying attention to seating arrangements, making sure lists are not organized by gender, monitoring the amount of attention given to boys and girls, critically assessing the textbooks for gender stereotypes, and not assigning tasks in a stereotypical fashion.  (118-119)  This last may be one of the most critical as girls are usually assigned "caring" tasks and boys the ones that involve heavy lifting. 

     I believe that even more effective would be the subliminal messages conveyed by the atmosphere of the institution in general.  Posters showing women in typically male roles and males in typically female roles would be effective, especially if they seemed to simply "be there," as opposed to having been put there to make a point. 

Conclusion

     We need people in positions of leadership who are able to recognize roles and stereotypes and communicate both to the faculty and the community how they tend to reduce people to objects.  Sexism is so deeply ingrained in our institutions that we are often unaware of it as in the example of who is relating the story of Allison and this awareness is the first and necessary step towards any attempts to rectify this problem.  Once the decision is made to combat sexism, the materials and approaches are ready.

APPENDIX A

 

 

     The following excerpt is taken from Shoop (1994):

 

     "What else did you like about school today?"

     "Well, we played dog again."

     "Dog?  I don't think I know that game.  How do you play it?"

     "It's lots of fun.  The girls that are playing stand next to one of the boys.  Then a boy throws a stick across the playground, and the girls race each other to fetch it.  The girl who gets the stick first brings it back to the boy."

     Perhaps I was jumping to conclusions.  I took a deep breath and said, "Oh.  That's an interesting game.  Do the girls ever get to throw the stick?"

     "No, just the boys.  It's fun.  I like to run around."

     I caught my breath and could feel myself becoming anxious.  We had raised Allison to believe that boys and girls are equals.  We had taught her that she can become whatever she wants to be.  We tried to use only nonsexist language and to help her understand the consequences of sexism.  Equity was not just talk in our house.  Allison had helped stuff envelopes for women political candidates and had marched in NOW demonstrations.  Now, after one week of kindergarten, she is fetching sticks thrown by boys!"

     During the rest of my day that conversation kept running through my head.  I could not stop thinking about how many lessons that are taught and learned in school are not in the curriculum guides.  I became more and more concerned as I thought about how each lesson learned creates the foundation for future lessons.  (44)

 

APPENDIX B

    

     The following exerpt is taken from Shoop (1994):

 

     Bill loved to dance.  He took jazz and ballet classes from the time he was in the first grade.  He was often the only boy in the class, but that never bothered him.  When his friends put pictures of Montana and Jordan on their walls, Bill put up Nuryev and Baryshnikof posters.

     Bill's problems began when he started millde school.  Athletics were a very big part of the lives of most of his male friends.  Although most were not on a team, they were very big fans of football and basketball.  When they heard that bill was going to be in a dance recital, they started calling him "queer" and "homo."  Even some of his teachers make jokes about his interest in dance.

     Bill stopped going to his dance classes.  He also stopped going to school.

 

REFERENCES

 

 

 

Hilke, Eileen Veronica. (1994). Gender equity in education.       Fastback 372.  Phi Delta Kappa.  Bloomington, IN.

 

Karraker, Katherine Hildebrandt.  (1995).  Parents' gender-     stereotyped perceptions of Newborns.  The eye of the beholder revisited.  Sex Roles:  A Journal of Research.  33 (9-10),   687-701.

 

Kitano, Margie K.  (1995).  Lessons from gifted women of color.    Journal of Secondary Gifted Education.  6(2).  176-87.

 

Lee, Valerie E.  (1994).  Sexism in single-sex and coeducational independent secondary school classrooms.  Sociology of   Education.  67(2).  92-120.

 

McCarthy, Cameron, Ed.  (1993).  Race, identity, and representation      in Education.  New York: Routledge. 

 

McCormick, Theresa Mickey.  (1994).  Creating the nonsexist      classroom.  A multicultural approach.  New York:  Teachers College Press. 

 

Phinney, Greta.  (1994).  Sexual harassment: A dynamic element in   the lives of middle school girls and teachers.  Equity and Excellence in Education.  27(3).  5-10.

 

Ramey, Felicenne H.  (1994).  Obstacles faced by african american women adminstrators in higher education:  How they cope.     Western Journal of Black Studies.  19(2), 113-119.

 

Rudduck, J. (1994).  Developing a gender policy in secondary      schools.  Buckinham: Open University Press. 

 

Sadker, Myra.  (1984).  Failing at fairness:  How America's schools   cheat girls.  New York: Macmillan

 

Shoop, Robert J. and D. L. Edwards.  (1994).  How to stop sexual    harassment in our schools: A handbook and curriculum guide for      administrators and teachers.  Boston:  Allyn and Bacon.

 

Stein, Nan.  (1993).  Secrets in full view: Sexual harassment in   our K-12 schools.  Paper presented at the annual meeting of   the American Psychological Association.  Ontario.  [I have      only been able to obtain an abstract of this document and am     relying on that.]

 

Stein, Nan.  (1994).  Is it sexually charged, sexually hostile, or    the constitution?  Sexual harassment in K-12 schools.  Wests's   Education Law Quarterly.  4(3), 488-98.

 

 

Stitt, Beverly A.  (1994).  Gender equity in education:  An      annotated bibliography.  Carbondale:  Southern Illinois      University Press,

 

Theilheimer, Ish, ed.  (1995).  What's on?  You, your family and the tube.  Transition.  25(1), 1-33.

 

Willie, Charles V., ed. (1995). Mental Health, Racism, and      Sexism.  Pittsburgh:  University of Pittsburg Press.

 

Young-Bruehl, Elisabeth.  (1996).  The anatomy of Prejudices.       Cambridge, MA.:  Harvard University Press.